The Redoubt at Egmore: Possible Location and History

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1733 Map of Madras showing the Egmore Redoubt

Redoubt Pic Story of Madras

The Map given on the left is an important histoical document in that it gives us on overview of what Madras looked like in the first quarter of the eighteeenth century. More importantly, it illustrates the exact location of the Egmore Redoubt: the square bounded area outside the dark boundary lines towards the left top corner of the map. This Map was apparentlydone during the Governorship of Pitt when Madras underwent dramatic expansion. Right below we have the only surviving illustration of theEgmore Redoubt. The location geneally identified with the Redoubt is the Egmore Railway Station on theGandhi Irwin Road, opposite the Archives. This identification which was suggeted by Professor Srinivasachari in his "Place Names Of Madras"which he published in 1936 in the volume of essay commemoration the 300 years of the foundation of the City in 1636.

The identification seems to be slightly off the mark because there are historical documents that when sifted carefully give us a better site.

The location of the Redoubt was outside of the Bounded Hedges that surrounded the East India Company's self procalimed limits of its possessions. There was a Choultry in the place where the Redouby was constructed. And the purpose was strictly military. If we keep these factors in mind we get a better understanding of the location. The documents sate clearly that the Redoubt will have a brick wall around the Choultry in order to lodge such "forces as we shall send to defend peace". While there were frequent skirmishes with Dawood Khan, Mafuz Khan and even on ocassion with the Portuguese, the English faced only one serious contender, the French located in Pondicherry.And the defence of Madras implied guardingthe access points to the City. The obvious attacks from the sea were warded off as Love points out in his Vestiges of Old Madras by strengthening the Sea Gate with heavy weapons. And popular memory has it that the Fortification Walls were constructed with money collected from the Residents of the Black Town, that is the indigenous people and hence the name Wall Tax Road, The attaks on Madras by Dadood Khan prompted Thomas Pitt, whose granson was to become the Prime Minister of England, to seriously consider the issue of defenses.Kanchipuram and and Poonamalee were importantl towns frequently attacked by the Maharattas who controlled the Fort of Ginji and Vellore. Adding to the owes of the East India Company were polegars like Lingappa who commanded considerble armed following in the vicinity of Madras and preyed upon the trade and mechaindise passing through the area. It was during the invasion of the French under Count de Lally that we hear of the military role of the Egmore Redoubt.

The Consultations of the Governor in Council of the year 1710 state that a sum of 350 pagodas was sanctioned for the maintenance of the Choultry clearly a recognition that it was a useful asset. However the location of the Choultry in Egmore presented some thorny issues. Did East India Company have jurisdiction over thie area. Dawood Khan claerly a most colorful figure in the history of the time one one of his visits to Madras with the sole purpose of cadging liquor from the Governor, remarked that if the English came to trade why did they need fortifications, guns and cannon. A question that the Governor parried. By July 1711 a furter 563pagodas was spent in strngthening the Choultry and making it a Redoubt, a masonary fort.Apart from naking it a fort, the Company decided to build a Powder Mill in the same locaton. The reason recorded in the Consultations for the Year 1711 is the poor quality of gun powder available and the erratic supply from Europe which was involved in its usual seasonal conflicts. Brohiers was put in charge f the Powder Mill which was located within the Redoubt. By 1713 a total of 5060 pagodas had been expended on the Fortifications and th Powder Mill. The Redoubt had a dual purpose: to hold the Choultry Plains and was a Signal Post to alert the forces atFort St. George should an Army or Cavalry be seen. If these aspects are kept in mind it is clear that the location at the Egmore Station would have been quite futile to its stated purposes.

We have some other cluse about the location of the Egmore Redoubt in Robert Orme's Military Transactions of the British Nation in Hindustan. Wrting about the defense of Madras by Col Lawrence during the invasion of Lally he sates that the Choultry Plain extends two miles west of the Enclosures which bound St Thomas Mount and this plain extends right up to Mylapore. There is a reference to Chindradipettah as being close to the Redoubt and this is obviously a weaving village, chinna tari pettai. And there is a settlement by that name close to where we have located theRedoubt.

The Choultry Plain consisisted of (1) Puddupakkam (2) Chindradripet (3) Roypettah (4) Nungambakkam (5) Triplicane. Egmore itself came under the shifting sands of competing claims and various warlords of the time lid claim to it. The claim was finally setteld when Egmore was acquired by the Comapny.

Given these factors, and the location of the Redoubt given in the Map it appears that the location was much further west from where Srinivasachari located it.

  (This is only a tentative identification as this Historian has not had the opportunity of traveling to Madras and making an on the spot assessment)

Slavery and Fort St George: Does Madras under the East India Company have a Slaving Past

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Reynolds Painting

The Black Lives Movement in the US and across the white world has drawn attention to the enduring legacy of involuntary servitude or Slavery. In Madras, Forst St. George built on a strip of land acquired from the last ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire even as it was losing its elan to the might of the Mughals and their surrogates, remained along with Pulicat under he Dutch, Tanquebar under the Danes and Karaikkal under the French as important centres of Slave Trade in the Indian Ocan Region. The history of the Slave Trade is obviously not a pleasant subject and even the foremost authority on the Europeans Companies in India, Professor S Arasaratnam makes passing references to the prevalence of the Slave Trade. However even a cursory gkance through the Consultaions of the East India Company, Vestiges of Old Madras and of course Madras in Olden Time gives us enough material to begin a detailed study. Of these the last named compiled by James Talboys Wheeler is the most reliable and provides several insatnces of Slave Trade. Even as the debate over abolition was gaining ground in the English House of Parliament, the Court of Directors wrote that the financial problems of the Company stemmed from a "want of labouring people"and the same document states that the Company Officials in Madras were able to procule slaves for their Sumatarn outpost, Benkulen ( Richard Allen, Euroean Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, p1)..

In Love's Vestiges of Old Madras there are a few documents relating to the prevalence of teh Slave Trade and efforts made to bring the notorious trade under some legal framework:
1 An Agreement was signed between the English and the Portuguese authorities to restore slaves who had escaped from the teritories of the contracting parties
2 An Office was opened under the Town kanakkapillai to register slaves at the Choultry Building located on Market Street of Fort St George
3 A document from the Company to Elihu Yale published in Volume I of Vestiges p 546 refers to a need to ascertain the number of Slaves in Fort St George and the Black Town
4 Times of famine and they were frightfully common were times of distress and Children were sometimes sold into slavery with the connivance of Indian middlemen
5 Reference exists of young men and women sold to the Dutch at Pulicat for a bribe of 5 pagodas and the document hints that the Governor Henry Greenhill was aware of the trade and was conniving at it
6 A document registering the affadavit of John Leigh against Kannppa accusing him of procuring children for slavery and sold to "Hollenders" at Pulicat
7 Slaves had to be registered according to a document on p 80, Vestiges of Old Madras
8 "In 1687 the trade was sanctioned under regulation a duty of one pagoda exacted for each slave sent from Madras by sea". Vestiges Vol I p 545

The Slave Trade from Madras perhaps was not on the same scale and extent as the Atlantic Slave Trade but that does not absolve the various European Companies from bearing the responsibility for this Obnoxious Commerce. There were sporadic attempts on the part of Indian rulers to put an end to this menace just as the nayaks of Tanjavur who intervened to check the French Slave Trade at Karaikkal but given the superior military force at the command of the Europeans did not always succeed and also the invasion of Shvaji created extreme conditions of famine in the region and periodic shortages of foodgrain were opportune moments for the Slaving sharks, both white and Indian.

In the interest of Historical Truth it must also be mentioned that after the famous Mansfied Judgment an attempt was made to suppress the Slave Trade, However given the fragmented nature of legal jurisdiction and contesting interpretations of what constituted Slavery, the attempts to suppress Slavery had to wait the Passage of the Slaveru Abolition Act in 1834. After that the Royal Navy dployed a ship, an old Steamer for search and seizure of Arab and other ships involved in the Slave Trade. A series of treaties were signed with the sultans of Muscat, Zanzibat, Oman, the Immam of Mecca and a number of local chiels along the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea to ensure compliance of the treaties. The Jeddah Massacre of Europeans in 1858 may be linked to the resntment felt against what the Arabs regarded as legitimate commerce.

Take a close look at the painting above. It was painted by Reynolds and depicts Clive with his daughter. You will find a dark Indan face in the painting. Such traces do exist in addition to the documents ; It is high time for Indian historians to wean themselvs away from the garbage of Post Colonial theories and adopt rigorous time tested methods of Historical Research,

Charles Umpherston Aitchison Administrator, Diplomat Historian (1832-1896)

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The Victorian Age was replete with monumental historical projects like the History of the Parliament, Calendar of State Papers, Victoria History of the Counties of England and witnessed prodigious publication of Historical records. Stubbs and Maitland were keen investigators of Anglo Saxon political institutions, particularly in the two centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066 AD. In India too the British adopted a similar policy either to fends off challenges to their regime in the post Mutiny era when India was taken over by the Crown or as a intervention in preservation of Historical Documents and this project is associated with Charles Umpherston Aitchison. He was the Foreign Secretary of India, the first "President" of the Public Service Commission, the precurson of the UPSC and he was appointed to the Covenanted Civil Service soon after the Compettitive examinations were introduced and so was a pioneering competition wallah. Apart from these disctinctions, he was also the Lt. Governor of the Punjab and was closely associated with Sir John Lawrence.

C U Aitchisons

Charles Umperston Aitchison was born in Scotland in 1832 and was educated in the University of Edinburgh like the others we have studied in this series: William Roxburgh. He graduated with a Masters' degree in what was then quaintly described as Moral Philosophy and he was the only candidate selected from Scotland for appointment in the Covenenated Civil Srvice in India. His first appointment was inHissar in May 1857 but was providentially transferred to the Punjab and hence escaped the massacre that followed the Mutiny in May 1857, He was in Lahore when the Mutiny began. After the suppression of the Indian Mutiny, Aitchison was sent to Calcutta where he worked as an Under Secretary in the "Political Department".

The Mutiny was a turning point in Indian History in that it represented a significant movement towards national aspiration, although in an incohate fashion. For the English it was a moment of reckoning in that the violence that they had seen expereinced at the hands of their beloved "natives" was on a scale that shook the foundations of the political order that bound India to England or Great Britain as it styled itself then. And it is here that the work of C U Aitchison is reembered.

Historians have seen the rise of the East India Company to politcal and military power as a consequence of the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Treaty of Allahabad signed in 1765 merely ratified an pre existing reality. But in the "Narrative" part of his XIII volume Treaties, Sanads and Engagemets, a different and more sophisticated understanding of the process of territorial conquest of India is developed. We can call that process: Conquest by Treaty. Nearly 2500 individual documents are found over the XIII volumes that for some strange reason continued to be published under the editorship of C U Aitchison even after his death. The conflict between Paramountcy and So vereignty  lay at  the heart of this gigantic venture. Was the status of the East India Company in India until its takeover by the Crown in 1858 that of a Sovereign or the Paramount Power. The East India Company like any corporate body derived its charter to trade from the English Parliament but by the middle of the eighteenth century had transformed itself into a major political and military power largely on the strength of its huge land army and deft diplomacy. And the net result were Treaties which were signed by the Company with major political powers of the indigenous people like the Nizam, the State of Mysore, the states of Rajputana, the states of Central India etc. In most of these cases the Subsidiary Alliance from the time of Warren Hastings meant the accptance of a "Resident" and a detachment of Company forces which were o be maintined by the states in hih they were deployed.  Sannads were of a different order. They were documents issued by the Paramount Power in reply to or in response to an existing situation or dispute on the ground. The right of succession to the Gaddi was usually recognized through the grant of a sannad bearing the seal and signature of the Company. Engagments is a dubious category. Salt manufature, fishing and custom duties, forest grazing rights, native customs and practices were all governemed by the term Engagement. The English Administration both during the reign of the Company and the Viceroys communicated with "Native Chiefs" through the Political Department and it raises the question whether the Administartion then considered Natice chiefs to be "sovereign" entities. This question also has bearing on the later political history of India in that when the Transfer of Power took place in 1947 all the 616 entities that constituted the fabric of India became at one fell stroke "Independent"'.

C U Aitchison collected the documents which were widely dispersed in various territories and offices of the then regime and published them in order to demonstrate the legal validity of English authority to govern. The English Administration was particular that they nested and varying degrees of Sovereignty did not clash with the authority to governern India. And the Administration was based on consent in the strictly political sense in that it rested on the Treaty signed between the Native States and Princely States. The latter was a category that emerged only after the 1911 Durbar.

In the late nineteenth century, a major shift took place in the strategic thought that influenced the British policy in India. The security of India resided not only in the capability of defence on land but also the ability to intervene in the wide maritime worls stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Straits of Mlacca, a vision most eloquently articulated in Lord Curzon's celebated Address to the Royal Geographical Society, London and a vision whose wisdom in only now being understood after 70 years of neglect. Hence the Engagments with the Sultans of the decaying Ottoman Empire on the Gulf were brought into the imperial horizon: Muscat, Aden, Zanzibar and host og Arab sultans signed agreements including the Emir of Kuwait, a document they used to demonstrate their Independence when Saddam Hussein invaded the territory.

C U Aitchison was appointed President f the Public Service Commission in 1886 and he reccomended the establishment of the Imperial Civil Service, the nomenclature of which was changed to the IndianCivil Service. He also took interest in establishing educational insitutions in the Punab and the Aitchison College in Lahore is a good example. Upon his return to England he was created Knight Commander of the Star of India and he died in 1896.

Indian diplomats who have to answer challenges from a vaiety of different sources have to dpend heavily on Sir Aitchison's monumnetal work including the challege over Sir Creek.

George Floyd and the Death of American Democracy

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Police officer kneeling on his neck

USA is erupting in a race war that should show to the world the ugly face of American Liberlism. White liberalism has presented itself as a friend of the Blacks and has essentily hi jacked the Black Lives Matter Movement for serving its own decietful political agenda. This may sound strange, but the fact is that unlike the Ku Klaux Klan and the Southern Red Neck, who do not present themselves of friends of the Blacks, the white liberal is said to be  alet to discrimination, oppression and inequality, slogans that they deploy to deflect attention from any attempt at scrutinizing their record vis a vis the Blacks. In the Universities, the white liberals thunder to ther students about the "politics of race" "racial profiling" " white privilege" etc a rhetoric tht sometimes seduces the blacks to support the white liberal agenda: the Woke Agenda. And the same is replicated across the world. The support extended by these miserable white liberals to the agitations against a perfectly legal and democatic Citizenship Ammendment Act (CAA) passed by the Indian Parliament to extend the benefits of citizenship to the dispossessed minorities in the Islamic Republics in th neighbourhood of India also stems from the same perverted understanding of the moral centrality of the "white" race in negotiating the complex problems of the world today. A control over the acedemia and the Press has made woke liberalism thrive in the exalted ether of Post Colonialism. Now back to USA.

The American Police treats the Native Aerican and the Black Americans as the enemy or in woke lino, the "Other". Barack Hussein Obama made the situation worse for the African Americans by creating a huge industry of Prisons for Profits and by introducing madatory sentencing for non violent crimes such as drug dealing. A life imprisonment for being caught with 5 gms of drugs is unfair to say the least and that was the contribution of the dreamboy of the woke liberals, Obama. There are three basic problems within the African American community: lack of educational opportunities and skills, lack of positive role models and excessive state intusion in the lives of African American communities and the Police or th social welfare organs of the American state are the most egresious invaders of Back social and cultural space. Black mothers are routnely threatened to have their babies taken away for "neglect" and that too because she has to work to support the baby in the first place and most work spaces for low skilled jobs do not have creches or day care centres.

White liberals who are so eloquent about Inequality and are likely to have read a rave review of Thomas Pikketty have not said anything worthwhile on the Skilling of the African American youth. I remeber when I was a Ph D student at a well known American University I studied History and got my PhD in Medieval History way back in 1987) an African American gratudate student who went by the unfortunate name E Pluribus Unnum was repeatedly discouraged and humiliated until he exhausted his savings from doing a construction job in New York and then he faded away. The man responsible was one with an implacable liberal credentials. And I can say that when it comes to frothing at the mouth with liberal platitudes, there cannnot be anyone better than white liberals with their manifestos denouncing Inequality Racism Oppression and the like and they carry this toxic ideological cocktail into academic witngs in the name of post colonialism. All the while we must remember they are the poducts of white privilge and use that privilege to batten themselves at the expense of others,

There have been nearly 100 deaths this year alone of Black men who have been killed by policemen. Is their training at fault? We have no answer? Is the system of White Privilege so entrenched that the woke liberals cannot do anything maningful? I cannot udndertand how political leaders like Nancy Pelosi who has been so hyperactive against Donal Trump has done nothing for the under privileged in her own society. Even here after the killing of Geoge Floyd she was busy denouncing Trump who said quite categorigally tht rotest should not deenerate into Anarchy. Now the rioting that is taking place in New York, Washington, Richmond, Los Angles and scores of other cities is bringing a collapse of American society which is already been battered by COVID 19.

American Racism has two faces the ugly face of the KKK and the pretty face of the Woke Liberals and I feel I am safer with one whose malefesence I understand.

William Roxburgh and Indian Botany Plants Empire and Trade: Roxburgh and the Royal Botanical Garden Calcutta

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

PART III

Wiki Commons Roxburg Mansion Howrah

After the terrible diasater faced by William Roxburgh, he was called upon to the Superindendent of the newly established Botanical Garden at Calcutta. His great work on Indian flora, Flora Indica was undertaken here and was published by the Serampore Baptist Press under the stewartsip of William Carey.The influence of the Linnean System of Taxonomy and Nomenclature is embodied in this work' William Roxburgh took charge of the Botanical Garden in 1793 and in his first stint remained till 1797 wnen he returned to England to regain his health.In October 1799 he returned to Calcutta and remained in India till 1805 and left for his native Scotland in 1805 after spending a few months at St. Helena, the Company Island.In 1813 he left India for good to settle in Scotland. At the time of his depature he left his botanical collection and the Manuscripts of his Flora Indica with Carey anf they formed the basis of the two major publications of william Roxburgh: Hortus Bengalensis, a catalogue of plants in the botanical Garden and Flora Indica the outstanding classica work on Indian plants which till this day is regarded as the starting point of Indian Botany.

One of the first taks that he accomplished at Calcutta was the construction of hie Residence and Herbarium that also housed his Library, With the help of his extensive network of collaborators strewn all over the World, Roxburgh was able to bud up a good library of Botanical works, thereby replacing the one that he lost at Samalkotta.Roxburgh was particularly interested in commercial plants like Cotton and Indigo which would enable the East India Company increase its profits. Though he was not a founding member of the Asiatic Society of India which was created by Sir William Jones in 1784, Roxburgh publihed many of his researches in the Journal of the Asiatic Society and in Asiatik Researches. It has become fashinable for historians of Science writing under the pernecious shadow of Saidian, Foucouldian and Post Colonial theories to argue that such scientific enterprises as for instance the one presided over by Roxburgh or that of his contemporary Colin Makenzie were in reality elaborated trophies of power and Imperial Domination. The  argument being that Empire seeks to classify,rationalise, and ultimately appropriate the local knowledge in order ro subserve imperial ends. Joseph Banks and William Roxburgh are viewed as marionettes on a stage pre determined by economic and technological actors. Such an approach to History is both teleological and deterministic and denies the agency of human actors involved. The work undertaken by men uch as these must be seen in the light of their own acions and perceptions within an overarching framework provided by the East India Company.

When Robert Kyd left the botanical garden, there were only around 335 species of plants, trees and ferns in the Royal Botanical Garden. When Roxburgh retired after serving the Garden for nearly two decades the number had passed 3335 species. A  number of plants were introduced from China, South East Asia especially the Mlay Peninsula, West Indies, Canary Island, St Helena. Effort was made to introduce Mahogony and the Garden still has the trees planted by Roxbergh and as if by mircale survived the recent Cyclone Anpham. SriLanka, Bhutan, Andaman Islands were some of the other places from where plants were secured. The logic behind such exchanges was the pesrvation of seed and plant types so that a better understanding of nature could be obtined. Al this, of course, was predicated on the pious assumption that by careful study the Garden of Eden could be recreated here on Earth.

Of great interest was Sugar to the early pioneers. The politics of the East India Company collided head on with that of the entrenched Sugar lobby in the House of Commons who wee represntative of the West Indies Sugar interests who used African Slave labour to grow their commercial crop. The American War of Independence and the problems in the Aylantic in the early nineteenth century gave Indian sugar some respite and India started exporting Sugar by the last decade of the Nineteenth Century, Another issue that the Company faced was the drain of silver caused b the voracious demand fro Tea in England. The trade with China was financed by the export of Silver and until the Company hit upon Opium and forced it upon the Chinese from 1832 onwards, effort was made to grow Tea in India. Ut was Roxburgh who got 272 tea cuttings from Canton and tried to acclamatize Ta to Indian conditions.

The lasting contibution of William Roxburgh lay i his Plants of the Coromandel and Flora Indica. 
Another commercial crop in which Roxburgh showed great interest was Hemp which was used in packing and cordage. In the 310 acres that constituted the Botanical Garden, a part was dedicated exclusively to commercial crops and it may not be out of palce to point out that Rxburgh was the founder of Plant Research in India.

William Roxburgh died in 1815 but his name lives on.

William Roxburgh and Indian Botany Plants Empire and Trade From Samalkotta to Calcutta

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Part II

From Samalkotta to Calcutta

From Plants of the Coromandel

William Roxburgh was appointed as a Surgeon seconded to the Norther Circars and he set up a botanical garden at Samalkotta, at the estuary of the River Godavari, not far rom Coringa, the bio diversity hot spot and the French territory of Yanam. He reached Sanalkota in 1781 and established his ressidence near the Garden and collected a large number of plants which were eventually published in Plants of the coromandel several years later. It is quite likely that the Herbariusm of Robert Koneig was inherited by Roxburgh. Collecting plants all over th Norther Circars at a time when the East India Company had not fully esatblished itself must have been quite challenging. While he was at Samalkta, Roxburgh initiated the training of "natives" into the making of botanical drawings which drew heavily on the Deccan School of natural drawings and paintings which in turn were derived from Mughal examples. The Deccan Sultanates especially of Bijapur and Bidar had a rich background of naturalistic painting. 

The young Dr William Roxburgh was schooled in the methods and philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment and believed as did his patrons in the East India Company that along withTrade and other commercial activities the Company must help in the formulation of knowledge and explore the natural word for the exploitation of its resources by England. We mut remember that the British Empire at this time was being challenged across the Atlantic by the American War of Independence and that was soon overshadowed by the looming war with France. Finance Profit and Economic well being were the key elements in the Company's strategy. To that end Roxburgh devoed his energy identifying economically profitable palnts that culd be acclamatised successfully in Indian geographical conditions and also prepare them for transfer to other  scntres in the Joseph Banks' expanding network of botanical gardens: Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena and of course Kew Gardens. 

Plants of the Coromandel 

At Samalkotta, Roxburgh experimented with plants of economic value such as (1) Coffee (2) Cinnamon (3) Nutmeg (4) Arrotto (5) Sappan wood (Breadfruit ( 6) Mulberry and (7) Pepper vines. It is clear that the Company still had its Spice Monopoly in mind while framing its botanical institutions. The VOC controlled the Spice Islands and with the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, the East India Company took advantage of its large military presence in the Southern part of the Peninsula and captured Java. Once again another Scotsman, Col Colin Mackenzie who collected and collated histrical documents in South India, teamed up with Sir Stamford Raffles another Scot to collect documents and historical artifacts from the Island of Java. Some of these artifacts belonging to the SriVijya Kingdom can be seen in the Museum at Calcutta.

William Roxburgh was perhaps married at the time he lived in Samalkota though ater the death of his wife he ook up with an ndian woman in Calcutta and had a son with her who was educated in Edinburg but unfortunately died before reaching the age of 40. He too was a namesake of his father. The idallyic existence was shattered on the night of May 19th and 20th, 1787. What happended on that fateful night; By the time the night of horror was through, Roxburgh had lost his valuable Library, his drawings of botanical specimens, his Herbarium, his house his house and 10,000 pagodas of cloth.And herein lies a tale.

May is generally not cyclone season along the Coromandel Coast, November is the month when the historically devastating Cyclones of the Coromandl hve struck. Yey Roxburgh writes in his acount that he could feel "great convulsion" from the morning of May 17th. The wind he says blew hard from the North East and Roburgh was a keen metreologists as he kept a detailed record of Tides and Winds during his stay at Madras measuing high tide every day. In fact his first published essay in The Journal of the Royal Society was a record of Tides he maintained at Madras, now Chennai. Roxburgh did sate that the weather was unusual at this season. And he goes on to sate that "we did not apprehend that it would become more ferocious, but on the night of the 19th t night it increased to a hard Gale and on 20th in the morning it blew a perfect hurricne". Waves to the hright of narly 15 feet came crashing on the sleeping inhabitants of Coringa and Samalkota. Roxburgh and his wife escaped the storm by taking refuge in ahouse built on top of a hill and in the morning when they ventured  out saw death and devastation all around. He estimated that about 10,000 people had been killed in this freak perfect hurricane in an unsual time of the year.

Can the unusual storm and surge of the Sea which rose to the height of nearly 15 feet be expalined in terms of a tsunami caused by an erruption in the volcano in the Andaman chain, the one in Barren Island. There is a piece of evidnce in the historical record publised by Colebroke that recorded the erruption of the Barren Island volcano just a few days before the Sea surged towatd Samalkotta and Coringa. A sailor saw columns of smoke asending from the summit of the volcano from a distance of 7 leagues.

Thus the unusual fury of the May 19-20 Sea sure recorded by William Roxburgh may have been the effect of this Indian Ocean volcanic eruption'

To be continued in Part III

Sir Rollo Gillespie and the Battle of Nalapani: Why Nepla's Claim holds no water

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Today's Newpaper headline screams about the territorial assertions made by the Prime Minister of Nepal and India has rightly rejected his claim that it lacks historical merit, And what exactly is the historical merit India has so boldly claimed. We will address that issue and History offers us the only correct way of dealing with such controversies. Does Nepal have truth on its side or is the Prime Minister Grand Standing his new Patrons, the Chinese.

Much of Indian political landscape was shaped in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century as the Mughal Empires declined and new powers arose to fill the space evacuvated by the Fall of the Mughal Empire. Sir Jadunath Sarkar was spot on when he arued that the dyning Mughal Empire was more significant to India than the Empire at its peak. The new power of course was the Easi India Company whose "corporate violence and pillage" as Darlymple put is framed the political and military history of India fr nealy a century and to this we maust add the important role played by Maharaja Ranjt Singh and the short lived Sikh kingdom which essentially stopped the Tibetans and the Nepalese from occupyig parts of India east of the Sutlej and if Ladhak is an integral part of India it is due to the successful occupation of Lahsa by the forces of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Nepal warlord Amar Singh Thapa tried to take the fort of Kangra but the Sikh forces drove him out

Political change was on the horizon in the Kingdom of Gorakh as well. Prithivi Narayan Shah tried unifying the kingdom of Nepal and set his eyes on the land beyon the Ghandaki river especially the region of Gharwal whose ruler suought the support of the East India Company; The expansion into Tibet was repulsed by the Chinese who in turn imposed the Treaty of Betrawati on Nepal by which Nepal agreed to pay tribute to China and lost its sovereignty to the Middle Kingdom. The Prime Minister of Nepal is following the same dangerous game today.

Sir Rollo Gillespie

There is a saying in Nepal: With the merchants come the musket with the Bible the Bayonet. This popular saying refers to the circumstances surrounding the Anglo Nepal War which arose out of territorial disputes and the demand for Down a soft wool a very valuable commodity. The notoriously tempramental river the Mahakali was officially recognized as the boundary and herein lay the oot of the conflict.

The historical considerations that the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India alludes to are the making of one man, Sir Rollo Gillepie.In South India he is reviled as the butcher of Vellore when in July 1806 he led a small contingent of arounf 100 native and European troops scaled the ramparts of the Vellore Fort within which a Mutiny had taken place in the morning of July 8 when the troops massacred around 300 or so Europeans in their beds. Gillespie had earler served with distinction in Jamaica and after the suppression of the Vellore Mutiny he was sent to Java where he succeeded in capturing Jakarta. Gellespie was brutal as he was brave and both in Java and in Vellore he left benind a trail of blood and gore.The first recorded use of the Anglo Saxon method of mass execution by tying soldiers to the cannon and blowing them to bits was introduced by Rollo Gillespie to be followed ears lated by General Neill during the Distrurbances of 1857.

In 1814 Rollo Gellespie commanded the East India Company troops at the Battle of Nalapani where the troops of the the Nepal Army were soundly defeated and that victory paved the way for the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli by which the entire Terrai and the gharwal region of Nepal was annexed in  1816. And so India is quite right in assering its rights over the region that Nepal now claims. As for Rollo Gillespie he died in the Battle of Nalapani in 1814 and his remains were transported to Meerut where he lies burried in the St John's Church.

Gillespie Memorial

In this neglected graveyard is the Grave of the warrior to whom India is indebted for acquiring by conquest the Terrai region of the present day state of Uttarakhand.

I wish Indian Historians will leave their obsession with the so called National Movement and move on to the study of issues like this which have a bearing on India its strategic and domestic interests.