Woke Racism: How a New Religion has Betrayed Black America: A Review

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Woke Racism: How a New Religion has Betrayed Black America

John McWhorter

Today USA is fast becoming an Orwellian dystopia where Mothers are called Birthing Persons and men win women's races by "identifying" as women. A College Women's  Swimming team faced this problem and the Twitter mob came out in strength yelling "Transphobic Bigots" which quickly sent the challengers scurrying for cover. Welcome to the Brave New World of Woke America. 

John McWhorter is a Professor of Linguistics teaching in an Ivy League University and is Black. Both these details are important as the book under discussion will be trashed by white liberals had it been written by a white person, worse he would have been called racist bigot by a lynch mob of raving wokes. The author prefers to call the new leaders of the emerging socio-political ideology in USA as Elect not woke as the term irritates them no end. Let it be remembered that the term woke first circulated in black communities as a catch all term for a person with a perceived heightened sense of racial justice, a social justice warrior in short. 

Is Wokeism a New Religion. The author argues that the new ideology has all the markings of a new religion or cult. Its Bible White Fragility and its priests a whole army of well educated "corporate" "wall street" millennials who imagine that their earrings in six figure salary is the outcome of "white privilege" and made to atone for their success by supporting the Black Lives Matter and other organizations that are in the forefront of this socio-political movement. Arguing that this movement is a religion with the Elect as the a Synod whose members are blessed with the great wisdom of sniffing out systemic racism wherever that ugly beast resides. American Universities, particularly the soft disciplines like the Social Sciences have already embraced the woke ideology without much critical discussion.  There can be no discussion as the Commissars of the New Left have already decreed that anyone questioning their statements or opinions is a racist and will face the consequences of his/her actions in the digital public square when the Twitter mob will be incited to "tar and feather" the offending person. 

The New cult of Wokeism has created a new crime Thought Crime. We had heard of Thought Crimes only in the dystopia of Orwell's 1984. No. Thought crimes are here and have consequences. The author has discussed a few instances in which journalists and writers, even teachers in schools and universities have faced serious punishment for expressing opinions or dissent against the ruling orthodoxy of the New Left. One unfortunate soul tweeted that All Lives Matter and that was enough to bring the enlightened ones out in all their fiendish hunger. The tweet wad disrespectful to George Floyd was the alleged reason for the collective howl of protest. And like in Orwell's 1984, a new language is slowly being fashioned to condition thought and police the boundaries of the thinkable. In the social practice of Wokeism, accusation is followed by condemnation and cancellation and no one wants to face that. USA is going through a nightmare of guilt and there is no hope of redemption in the Church of Wokedom, as the author repeatedly points. Being white marks you out for eternal damnation. The sins of Slavery rest on the shoulders of the whites as they have inherited country built on "systemic racism". 

The over politicisation of American society along racial lines is already eroding civil and constitutional liberties and rights. Though the writer does not discuss it, I would like to point out that the recent threat of the Department of Justice to investigate parents who show dissent about Critical Race Theory will be investigated as "domestic terrorists" under the Patriots Act. A chilling threat but one that the corporate media is quite comfortable with. During the Nazi era in Germany, neighbours were encouraged to spy on each other and we have the American Establishment openly aligning itself with those who want to use state apparatus to stamp down parental concern for a good education for their children.

Critical Race Theory as a pedagogic tool is unfit for a school curriculum as it is based on fake history and false science. Project 1619 which wants to project USA as being tainted by slavery from the very inception tries to argue that the American War of Independence was fought to preserve Slavery. Nothing is further form the truth. As a Historian, I can concede that by winning the war a new lease of life was given to Slavery but the purpose was not to protect the peculiar institution. As the author points out, it is futile to condemn Washington and Jefferson today as "slaveholders" as that was the moral standard of the day. This argument is not quite correct. There were quite a few eighteenth century philosophers and I can name Edmund Burke who had condemned the Atlantic Slave Trade. So the explanation for the institutionalization of Slavery has to be sought in the colonies themselves. 

This work is a sensible critique of a growing movement and it seems that the push back against woke thought has begun.

Sir Aurel Stein and the Treasures of the Silk Road The Dunhuang Cave and its Paintings PART II

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Sir Aurel Stein and the Treasures of the Silk Road: The Dunhuang Caves

Part II

The Dunhuang Caves excavated by Sir Aurel Stein was the site of an ancient Buddhist Monastery dating back to the Tang Period which housed a secret ante chamber containing a wealth of manuscripts, silk scrolls, paintings and books. It is estimated that atleast 50,000 manuscripts and other culturally significant artefacts were removed from the cave by Aurel Stein and the British Museum together with the Victoria and Albert Museum contain these treasures. 

We have illustrated a typical painting here. The Dunhuang Cave itself was a spectacular creation which reminded Stein of the Ajanta Caves and he saw a remarkable similarity in the style employed in the paintings found in these tow places. The caves located at the very edge of the Gobi desert were patronized by the merchants who traded with the societies that lived along the oases and the Silk Road. Rich deposits of coins found amidst the ruins scattered all along the desert are testimonies to the commercial artery  that linked the Orient with the West. Dunhuang itself was at the intersection of the road from Tibet and throughout the Tang dynasty a strong military presence was maintained here. The presence of letters written in Tibetan discovered in a watch tower, a letter from a Tibetan soldier complaining about the harsh conditions in which the garrison lived, showed that for some time the Tibetans had ousted the Chinese. 

Throughout his explorations both in Kashgar and Khotan Stein found evidence of a rich culture which demonstrated the hold India exercised on the imagination of the ancient world. Aurel Stein coined the term Serndia to characterize the culture, Indian in origin and expressed in Greek and Chinese idiom. In fact in his monumental work on his Second Expedition he has traced this culture to the Kushanas, who though of Central Asian origin, adopted Indian culture and played an important role in transmitting it along the Silk Road to Central Asia and beyond.  Stein collected documents written on birch bark and paper making his collection the earliest known use of rag paper in history. The scripts derived from Ashokan Brahmi or Kharoshti are of course vital clues to the positive impact India has had on the region. 

Sir Aural Stein was the first archaeologist to cross the Taklimakan Desert and explore the Tarim Basin. Miran was a site in which Stein collected hundreds of Tibetan documents along with wooden tablets on which writing was present. From the large number of documents recovered he concluded that an entire archive located ion one of the higher floors had decayed and its collection of documents fell below, and the dry arid atmosphere of the desert had preserved them for over 2000 years. Serindia then covered the entire region from Kashgar across the Hindu Kush to the Tarim Basin.

The Dunhuang site was littered with the remains of statues of Buddha and Stein identified the Rawak Stupa as one of the oldest structures of the region which bore distinct resemblance to its Indian counterparts in Sarnath and Sanchi. 

We have illustrated one of the many manuscripts taken by Sir Aurel Stein.  The rich harvest of manuscripts from the region was not without its share of academic controversy. Knowing that manuscripts were in great demand, some enterprising Uighurs/Turks began forging books which they passed off as ancient  manuscripts. An eminent Orientalist in Calcutta was a victim of this hoax and it fell upon the shoulders of Aurel Stein to expose it.

The exquisite silk scrolls found by Stein during the course of his Second and Third expeditions are now in United Kingdom. The region from which these exquisite pieces of art came from falls under the political  jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China. Turkestan itself was hotly contested through much of its history between Russia, China and Tibet. For nearly seven hundred years the Turks ruled over the region putting an end to the Buddhist and 

other religions lie Christianity that once flourished here. Hence given the complex history of the region a simplistic national origin argument to justify a Chinese claim over the treasures of Central Asia cannot be realistically entertained. India has a far more tangible claim over the treasures as they were inspired by Indian cultural interactions and influence.  Aurel Stein himself recognized the extent of Indian cultural influence in this region when he coined the term, SerIndia.

Over the century and a quarter since Stein's expeditions to Central Asia a huge controversy has erupted over his legacy. That the expeditions to Central Asia were part of the Great Game is clear from the fact that throughout his travels he mapped surveyed and made detailed topographical and geographically based maps and in this task he was ably assisted by Ram Singh a surveyor sent by the Survey of India to assist him. The Chinese authorities were quite aware of what Sir Aurel Stein was doing but given the turbulent nature of China after the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, there was little China could do. And with the Russians breathing down heavily with the construction of the trans Caspian Railway, the Chinese felt that they had to keep the English in good humour and that was the same attitude that they displayed in Lhasa in 1911 when the Traety was signed with Sir Francis Younghusband. 

Basil Davidson in his book Turkestan Alive has recollected the numerous instances during his travels in the region when he heard Aurel Stein denounced as a "bandit" "thief" "vandal". True Sir Aurel Stein took possession of vast culturally significant treasure. However in hind sight we can safely say that but for his intervention much of the heritage may have been detroyed in the endemic civil wars that too palce during the Nationalist Period and during the Cultural Revolution. And in anycasr Turkestan is predominantly Muslim and so the Buddhist heritage has become alien to the region.

Aurel Stein is still remembered as a explorer and an intrepid adventurer following the footsteps of Alexander, a seventh century Buddhist monk and Marco Polo.

Sir Aurel Stein and the Treasures of the Silk Road: Can Communist China reclaim the Buddhist Artefacts Manuscripts and Scrolls

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Sir Aurel Stein and the Great Game 

Part I

Sir Aurel Stein (1862 - 1943) is  not a name that will ring too many bells today. But in his day he was regarded as an explorer extraordinaire and an archaeologist in a league all by himself. His prodigious output in terms of scholarly studies like Serindia, Ancient Khotan, Ruins of Desert Cathay and his On the Tracks of Alexander were all regarded as classics in his day. Though a citizen of Hungary, a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire which was ranged against Britain during World War I, Aural Stein rose to become one of the most respected figures of the imperial British establishment both in India and England. Like Mortimer Durand and Percy Sykes, Aurel Stein too was a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire, a decoration specially created to honor those who rendered service to the Empire. What exactly did that service consist of?

The late nineteenth century witnessed the rivalry between the Russian Empire and the British Empire, a rivalry in which India was sucked in due to its proximity to Central Asia and Afghanistan in which Russia had begun to take active interest. The main theatre of this rivalry was actually the Straits of Bosporusa and the Straits of Dardanelles both in Ottoman territory. The Crimean War was fought only to preserve the Ottoman Empire as none of the other European powers could agree about what its territorial gains would be should the Ottoman Empire be partitioned. Indeed all three major European powers had conflicting and divergent interests and so the status quo was the only solution. On the Asian frontier the situation  was quite complicated, a bundle of political and military skirmishes, high and low level intrigue, arming tribal groups of whom the Afriddis are the most notorious, using nomadic peasants as information suppliers, to which Arthur Connoly  in an inspired moment called the Great Game. And Great Game it was as both Russia and India under the Raj believed that the Chinese part of Turkestan the Sinkiang of today, the Uighur territory, was open for political and economic hegemony. The British had supported a warlord, Yakub Beg, for a few years towards the close of the nineteenth century, but the Russians were not far behind.

The Great Game had one unexpected participant: Aurel Stein. He was born of Jewish parents but given the anti s Semitism of the Austro Hungarian Empire his family thought it prudent to have him baptized. Aurel Stein converted to the Anglican Religion as he lay dying in Kabul in 1943. In 1883, Stein took his PhD in Oriental languages and he was trained in both Sanskrit and Persian. After his doctorate he came to India and soon found  employment in the Punjab where he served as the Registrar of Punjab University. The first major academic project undertaken by Aurel Stein was the translation of Kalhana's Rajatarangini into English. With the help of a Kashmiri pundit, Govind Kaul, managed to appropriate a manuscript written in the Sharada script which formed the basis of the Three volume Translation of the Rajatarangini. Impressed by his erudite lecture in Sanskrit the Maharaja of Kashmir retained Aurel Stein to catalogue the Sanskrit Manuscripts preserved in the Temple attached to the Royal Court. 

 To be continued

Sir Percy Sykes: Explorer Spy Diplomat Persia and the Great Game

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Persia in the Great Game: Sir Percy Sykes Explorer Soldier Spy

Anthony Wynn

Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes was a personality straight from the pages of a Rudyard Kipling novel. He combined the life of adventure for which T E Lawrence is famous for and a love for adventure which made Sir Richard Burton the cynosure of Victorian society. He traveled widely in Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia and as he traveled he explored the terrain  and sent detailed maps of the region to the Indian Army Intelligence Headquarters at Shimla. He lived and worked in dangerous times. Persia, an unstable patchwork of tribes and sectarian associations, was stirring intellectually to a new kind of political awakening. A movement aimed at transforming Persia into a Constitutional State was gathering momentum and by the first decade of the twentieth century had virtually rendered the Qajar Dynasty both powerless and seriously undermined. Percy Sykes was the Consul posted at Mashhad at a critical juncture and his long standing friendship with the Crown Prince made him a valuable source of political information for the English.

Percy Sykes was born in 1867 in Yorkshire and died in 1945. Educated in the well known Rugby School, Sykes joined the Sandhurst Military Academy and was posted in India. He was based in Sialkot with the 16th Lancers. Along with Francis Younghusband, Syskes too was seconded to the Indian Army and its Intelligence wing. And in this, Sykes was eminently successful as he was able to explore little known mountain passes, traverse the inhospitable Lut Desert, explore the migratory routes of Turkoman nomads as they crossed from Central Asia into Afghanistan and thence into Persia. As he wrote in his History of Exploration his guides in his exploration were the accounts of Alexander's conquests, particularly that of Arrian and the travels of Marco Polo. Sykes was a protégé of Sir Mortimer Durand whose biography he wrote in which he expressed admiration for the tireless manner in which he pursued British interests in Afghanistan which till today is institutionalised in the form of the Durand Line, the boundary between Afghanistan and India, now of course, the line dividing Pakistan from the Pashtun heartland of Afghanistan. Percy Sykes was well trained in Persian and so was able to acquire impressive intelligence.

Persia in the late nineteenth century was the target of two powerful and expansionist Empires: Britain and Russia. The Great Game as Rudyard Kipling called it was played out from the Pamirs, across the Taklamakan Desert, the snow capped peaks of the Hindu Kush to Tehran and Shriaz. An the Consul in Mashhad  and Kerman, Sykes kept a close watch on Russia. The construction of the Trans Caspian Railway had made it easier for the Russians to move its military rapidly and the tribes inhabiting the border areas were constantly in a state of what Ibn haldun called fitna, a state of political unrest. negotiations with tribal leaders on behalf of the Indian Government meant also dealing with the regime in Persia whose writ barely extended as far east as the Baluchi border. The increasing old of Russia over Tashkent meant that Indian trading interests suffered.

During his years of service, Sykes explored 3000 miles in the Himalayas and discovered no less than 40 passes that had strategic value. His detailed Reports which he submitted to the Legation in Tehran eventually found their way from the Foreign Office to the Royal Geographical Society. The task of communication was still filled with difficulties as the engineers sent to man the British Persian Telegraph Company were killed sometimes within days of reaching their posts.

Sir Percy Sykes was a keen observer of the landscape he surveyed. He noticed that the qanats that supplied water to the fields on the border between Baluchistan and Persia had been destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century and agriculture had not quite recovered since. He also was intrigued by the spectacular structures he saw in the region adjoining Persia and Baluchistan. 

The windmills that harnessed the violent desert winds were described vividly by Sykes and they were still functioning when he wrote about them. Huge parallel wall made of mud capture the wind and funnels it towards giant sails that drive timber shafts to which are attached grinding stones. Some of these structures are still extant and are now recognised as UNESCO world heritage sites.

The discovery of Oil in Persia and the transition from coal burning engines to oil powered ships in the Royal Navy added another element in the tense relationship between Persia and the British. With Germany beginning to take an interest in the region in order to use political Islam as an ideology to motivate anti British feeling among Muslims all over Asia men like Sykes had their hands full. At Kashgar Sykes helped Sir Aurel Stein smuggle 146 cartons and boxes of antiquities into India and till this day the Chinese have neither forgotten nor forgiven this vandalism of their cultural heritage.

This book is well written and is based o the personal papers correspondence and Reports of Percy Sykes. In 1915 he was knighted for his services, receiving the KCIE. He died in 1945. 

A Medieval Monarch of South India: Rajaraja I, the Splendid Monarch

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces in Society

Raghavan Srinivasan

New Delhi: Leadstart

2021

Rajaraja I (985-1014) is the subject of the book under review and he is a difficult personality to pin down. Srinivasan has set out to write a biography of a medieval Tamil king and given the extremely limited and fragmented evidence, it is creditable that he has produced a book length narrative. The book is structured around the known events of his reign and are discussed around the themes enunciated by historians such as K A N Sastri, Burton Stein, R Champakalakshmi and others. The evidence extant from the period do not permit an indepth investigation into the Life and Times of Rajaraja I as the Chola monarch lacked a biographer and chronicler like Akbar had in his companion, Abul Fazal. Given this limiting condition, the author has done a reasonable enough job in presenting the political and economic lineaments of the reign of Rajaraja I, the Splendid Monarch as one historian has called him.

The Historian has to depend on Copper Plate Inscriptions as his source for reconstructing the history of the period. Politically the reign of Rajaraja, the Rajaesari, was responsible for rehabilitating the fortunes of the Dynasty that had taken a drastic turn for the worse following the Rashtrakuta invasion and the defeat and death of the heir apparent, Rajaditya in the Battle of Takolam in 949 AD. Rajaraja showed his political skill in ensuring the survival of both the State and the Dynasty by changing the pattern of Chola succession. This important change which imparted a firm institutional foundation to the Chola State has been ignored in the analysis proffered by Raghavan Srinivasan. 

Another important aspect that is argued in the book as per the current historiographical trend is an examination of Kingship as practiced during the Chola period. While there is a great deal of debate on this  issue, the writer has waded into an extremely contentious one by using the concept of Deva Raja to situate Chola kingship. God King in South East Asia, especially for the Khemer kings meant the apotheosis of king as god upon death. Unfortunately the interpretation advanced by  Nilakanta Sastri has gathered vehement traction and needs examination. First, Rajaraja or for that matter no Chola king, claimed the status of gods. The closest that Rajaraja came to divinity was when he claimed the title, siva-pada-shekara in his inscriptions in the Big Temple at Tanjavur. (South Indian Inscriptions vol II No 1 and 2). The Esalam Plates of Rajendra I also attest to the patronage extended to radical Saiva groups like the Kalamukhas and the Pasupatas, a link that we first encounter when the mahavrattins of the Kalamukha order are given custody of the pallippadai shrine of Arinjeya at Melpadi. The evidence that we have goes to prove quite conclusively that the Cholas did not claim divinity as a constituent element of the ideological apparatus of the state.

The very name of Rajaraja's magnificent temple at Tanjavur, the Rajarajes'vara Temple, built in his 25th regnal year encapsulates the enigma of Chola kingship. The double entendre' refers both to the name of the King and Deity and does not indicate an appropriation of divinity by the mortal king. The medieval European monarchs considered Kingship as a union of Two Bodies, the Body of Christ and that of Man, but the Chola conception was resolutely secular.

This book provides a good introduction to the political history of the period and the author has essentially followed the identification of places mentioned in the inscriptions as given by Sastri in his now classic history. The inscriptional rhetoric of taking the head of the king, as the author points out was merely rhetorical as defeated kings were never killed as was the practice under Islamic rulers. The  trade and commerce carried out by the guilds has been discussed, though the extent of coined currency being used in commercial transactions may by disputed.

This is a well written and interesting book and deserves to be read by all those interested in the past of South India.

The Cat who saved Books Reading and Redemption

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The Cat Who Saved Books

Sosuke Natsuawa 

New York, Picador 2021

A young boy, Rintaro, finds his world falling apart when his grandfather, the owner of Natsuki Books died suddenly leaving him a second hand boo store filled with the Classics. Enter Tiger the Tabby and the boy discovers his inner strength and realizes the redemptive power of compassion, love and the quest for peace through the pursuit of knowledge and books. The book shop tucked in a corner of an unnamed city in Japan is a portal that opens up to a parallel universe in which Books are trapped and Tiger  the Orange Tabby wants Rintaro's help to save them. What follows in an allegorical tale, plainly told but redolent with wisdom and at time deeply moving in its intense description of greed, power and self love.

The Cat presents himself without ceremony, "The name is Tiger the tabby" he says with his triangular ears and piercing eyes. Books have been imprisoned declared that Cat and Rintaro Natsuki is tasked to rescue them and the Cat adds rather mysteriously that should he fail in the task he would be trapped in a timeless labyrinth. Aware of the tremendous power of books, Rintaro hold up the futility of hoarding knowledge as an end in itself and there by rescues the books hoarded in giant cavernous halls. The books saved from imprisonment by the power of truth that resides in one who truly loves them, A lesson learnt from his grandfather.

Labyrinth Two is far more complex and it concerns the appropriation of knowledge by those claiming to understand books and see to distort the meaning by imposing their misguided interpretations on the books they read. Is the author taking a swipe at the current fashion of Deconstruction which has taken the literary world by storm. There is no text only readers. And readers have no objective standards by which to judge the meaning of what they read. "The style is free from any individuality, expressions are deliberately kept to those in common usage--the passages are touched up to achieve the utmost plainness and simplicity." Interpretation is a supreme act of power and true meaning eludes the reader as interpretation is ultimately grounded in innate wisdom not the technicalities of language, grammar and rhetoric.

And finally Labyrinth Three is a metonym for the power and élan of the publishing industry which has grown so huge and gargantuan that it can claim to be the final arbiter of human knowledge, taste and political opinion. Publishing books and making huge profits is the only aim of  mega corporations and human well being is not promoted by men motivated by economic interests. Rintaro now faces an adversary who does not love books.

The Cat who saved books is a story that teaches empathy and compassion and above all the immense power books have in making the world what it is today. I enjoyed this book and strongly recommend this book. 

About Time: A History of Civilization in Twelve Clocks A REview

A look at the world of politics, statecraft, diplomacy and books

About Time: A History of Civilization in Twelve Clocks

David Rooney

New York; W W Norton and Company Inc, 2021.

"What is time then? If nobody asks me, I know; but if I were  desirous to explain to one that should ask me; plainly I do not know." St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo.

The book under review by an internationally acclaimed Horologist  is a study of time from two rather distinct perspectives. The first part is a well researched study of early ventures into time-keeping in different parts of the world and his discussion of  the history of mechanical time keeping by investigating the construction of large mechanical clocks from the thirteenth century on wards is lucid and valuable. Inexplicably ne changes track and meanders into the impact of time and clock culture on modern civilization and goes on to claim that standardization of time led to exploitation, tyranny and oppression. Whether the mechanical clock with its relentless motion signaling the passage of time had anything to do with these rather unsavory developments is open to debate.

Human beings have always  found the movement of the stars  or rather the planets both mysterious and fascinating. The length of the noon day shadow seemed to vary according to the movements of the celestial bodies giving the first device of measuring time: the sun dial. The Chinese invented the clepsydra which sounded out the hours. And ancient Greece had its Tower of Winds which seems to have been an early observatory.

The tower of Winds has miraculously survived the tumultuous passage of time, though its exact function is still largely a matter of conjecture. With the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Latin texts as part of the great cultural shift that Historians call the Renaissance, mechanical means for time measurement were soon discovered and there was an early instance of civic competition when cities, states and communities started building clock towers all over in order to proclaim their status as free cities and progressive civic entities. The first mechanical clocks were introduced in 1275 and by 1600 nearly 200 clock towers existed all over Europe. 

The clock tower in the Italian city of Chioggia was characterized by a sophisticated mechanism consisting of intermeshing gear wheels driven by falling weights, an early attempt at the escape mechanism which lies at the heart of all mechanical time keeping. Apart from this clock, the designer of this device, Jacopo de Dondi constructed in Padua in 1344 a n astronomical clock which gave the relative position of the planets vis a vis the Earth, a planetarium in short. The other important step towards sophisticated time keeping is seen in the Salisbury Cathedral

One of the oldest clock towers still running on its own medieval design is the tower attached to the cathedral at Salisbury. Unfortunately sacked during the awful days of the attack on Church during the reign of Henry VIII, the tower and its clock survived destruction. The history of all these experiments in design and execution of time measurement is ably brought out in the book. 

The author has bought into the Foucauldian paradigm that science and the growth ( I will in a subsequent Book Blog Review Seb Falk's The Light Ages). The imposition of this interpretive element in this book is a distraction and it interrupts the otherwise well constructed narrative.

The author has tried to take a global approach to the issue of time keeping and its History and has adequately explored other cultures like Islam, India and China. One major drawback lies in the fact that time keeping is closely tied to Astronomy and therefore the transition from the Ptolemaic view to the Copernican view of the Universe is a sine quo non for a comprehensive investigation.

In the sixteenth  century the Roman Catholic Church made serious attempts to reform the Calendar as the celebration of Easter was seriously out of sync with the planetary motion. Apart from reforming the calendar steps were taken to measure the meridian and take correct readings of the sun as it passed over the spring equinox. Cathedrals in France and Italy were designed to function as Solar Observatories and the readings provided played an important role in reforming the Calendar, David Rooney has ignored this vital aspect and is a serious flaw.